Senacherib and Hezekiah

Isaiah 36-39

     This section of Isaiah is the same story found in II Chronicles chapter 32. Isaiah is a minor character in that telling, but here he is a major player in the life of the king of Judah. In this story the Assyrian king sends his troops to Judah in order to take over the land and own Jerusalem. This is a fine example of what makes the Old Testament so interesting and worthy of studying. The Bible narrative is like a spiral with the past not necessarily repeating itself over and over again, but each new generation's experiences echo that of the previous ones. The gift of the prophet is being able to see this pattern and try to get people to break the negative cycles in order to begin positive, more beneficial ones. This is why a prophet will usually verbally repeat the entirety of Jewish History before beginning a new prophecy. Its hard to see the echos when you are in the thick of it, but if you remove yourself and look at things as an outsider patterns are much more obvious.
    The story of Isaiah and Hezekiah is considered to be the end of Proto Isaiah. The story is a more fleshed out of the same telling in the II Chronicles version with Isaiah having a more expanded role. The events that are mentioned in the book of Isaiah, while similar to the story of Chronicles, do not necessarily match up to what we know about archaeological history. There are disagreements about specific dates for these kings and the conflicts with the surrounding nations mentioned in the Bible, but that does not mean that they should be discounted entirely.
    Time is a tricky thing and with our many revisions over the centuries of how we measure it, not to mention how ancient cultures measured it, its easy to find discrepancies in recorded history. However, there is plenty of evidence to show that this story is based on actual events. Besides these written accounts that can be dated back to an origin of at least 300-150 B.C. there are actual cuneiform records from the Assyrian Empire that date back to the actual time the events took place. The tunnel that Hezekiah built to keep water flowing to Jerusalem during the Assyrian siege is still preserved and one of the oldest, unchanged, biblical sites today.
    The King of Assyria mentioned in the book of Isaiah, Sennacherib, was an actual person. He was the King of Assyria during the late 600s B.C. There are records of his campaigns against surrounding nations that are dated to 690 B.C. and record events that are mentioned in the Old Testament such as the Assyrian attack on Samaria mentioned in II Kings 17-18 as well as his conquest against the city of Jerusalem in the Kingdom of Judah. The cuneiform even mentions Hezekiah by name and claims that he was shut up in Jerusalem like a 'caged bird'. Where it differs is that it has no mention of any major losses due to an attack from Judah, neither from divine angels of destruction or well equipped army. It was the practice of the ancient kings to only record victories and sometimes to even claim a victory when in reality they were defeated. There are many examples in archaeology of records being found concerning a battle between two ancient nations and each side claiming an enormous victory.
     That is what makes this story so compelling, and the idea that the prophet Isaiah was actually a real person. The other players mentioned in the story are verifiable, but there is no other source outside of the Hebrew scriptures that mentions this man or his role in this historical event. Regardless, his importance in Judaism and Christianity is significant. Christians use many of the prophecies of Isaiah to point to their fulfillment in Jesus. The Jews of Jesus's time used the prophecy to keep their culture strong in the face of Roman occupation and a few, such as the Essenes, even used it as a guidebook to prepare for the end of days. There are some theories that the Essenes may have actually been the inspiration for John the Baptist and Jesus's movement. Physical, historical, verifiable Isaiah is not, but that doesn't mean he is not an important influence on the history of the world as we know it.
   

The Warning to the Nations

Isaiah 12-35
     
   The next 27 chapters of Isaiah are considered to be the actual words of warning made by the Prophet Isaiah to his people and the surrounding nations. It is widely believed that these chapters could contain the original material from the time of this prophet, but there is also evidence that it could have been added and edited before arriving (between the 1st and 3rd century B.C.E.) at the final version we have now.
     In the time that these chapters are set,  719-702 B.C.E., Israel is no longer the glorious kingdom it used to be. Not only had it fractured into two smaller kingdoms, but the northern half was obliterated by the Assyrians. The southern kingdom of Judah was still going strong. When it came to the concept of monotheism in the world at this time, Judah was still the only game in town. The Temple of Yahweh was still standing and the Kings of Judah still remembered the God of their ancestors. However, the people of Judah followed in the ways of their pagan neighbors and worshiped foreign gods alongside of Yahweh. Isaiah was there to remind the chosen people of Yahweh their role in this ancient world. The covenant made between them was slowly unraveling and the consequences of their broken promises are explained to them by the prophet Isaiah.
    The surrounding kingdoms are also warned. Just as the old Canaanites were given warning before the Israelites came to settle so to are the contemporary kingdoms of the time. Babylon, Moab, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Tyre are the surrounding empires and upcoming players in the political and military landscape. Each has their own special warnings. Some will suffer alongside Israel at the hands of invading armies. Others will rip themselves apart from internal civil war.
    Even though chapters 1-39 are believed to be the actual original account and recorded words of the 8th century prophet Isaiah ben Amoz there seems to be some disagreement about the chapters 24-27. This section of the Book of Isaiah is referred to as "Isaiah's Apocalypse" and concerns God's judgment on the entire world in punishment for it's sin. This judgment is supposed to take place long after the outcome of the other prophecy that Isaiah gives to Jerusalem and the surrounding nations in the following chapters. Some think these chapters may have been added at a later date, but others believe it to be part of the original message of the historical prophet and are the first use of Apocalyptic language and ideas. These ideas were of great importance to certain branches of 1st century Judaism like the Essenes and are believed to have influenced other apocalyptic works such as the Book of Enoch and the New Testament's book of Revelation.
     In the end the Prophet promises the punishment for Israel and the other nations will be complete and the throne of David will be restored to a man that will lead the nation back to Yahweh. Once again the Jews will be the example of man living with God in balance and evil will no longer dwell in the holy city of Jerusalem. Chapter 34 is a special message to the people of Edom pretty much condemning them to extinction. In chapter 35 there is the promise that new life will arise from the ashes and the Glory of Yahweh will reign again. This is supposed to be the comfort for the people of Judah who are about to go through some terrible times. After the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel, Judah is now in the sights of the ever advancing Assyrian Empire.

Meta-Proto-Isaiah

Isaiah 6-12

     Who truly wrote the book of Isaiah is a puzzle that archaeologists, historians, and other scholars (theists and atheists alike) are still trying to piece together. The oldest copy of this Hebrew Scripture is called the Isaiah Scroll aka the Great Isaiah Scroll. In 1947 this scroll was one of 220 scrolls discovered at the caves of Qumran located in the West Bank near the Dead Sea; part of the contentious Israeli/Palestinian conflict that has been raging for a few generations now.
     These scrolls are known as the Dead Sea Scrolls. They are the remnants of a Jewish sect, most likely the Essenes, that got wiped out a few years after the Roman Revolution of 66 B.C.E. when the Jews kicked Rome out of Jerusalem. The nation of Israel would be independent again for the first time since the fall of Judah to the Babylonians. Of course three years later the Romans return and slaughter everyone and burn the Temple of Yahweh to the ground. The Dead Sea Scrolls are the holy scrolls that the Essenes, or other jewish group on the run, hid away in order to protect before either fleeing or falling to the sword.
      What is interesting about the Great Isaiah scroll, though, is the fact that it is the oldest copy of the entire book of Isaiah with a carbon dating placing the scroll between 330-110 B.C.E. The scroll itself is most likely a copy of an even older scroll that has been lost to history and that was probably not the oldest copy of this story, either. There are some slight grammatical and textual differences between this Great Scroll and the modern hebrew versions, but these variances don’t change the meaning of what is being conveyed too drastically. Although, with the extent that mankind likes to twist things to their own advantages that could be debatable.
     Despite the Jewish tradition of the author being the Prophet himself Biblical Studies of the past two centuries have led most scholars to believe that the text was probably written over a large period of time and can be broken into three major sections; Proto-(1st), Duetero-(2nd), and Trito-(3rd)Isaiah. We will get into the 2nd and 3rd Isaiahs later.
     The 1st part (chapters 1-39) is believed to have been either written by the prophet Isaiah or a historian of the time soon after Isaiah in the 8th century B.C.E. Chapters 6-8 give a little biography of the man. He was known to use his own self as well as his wife and children as tools for his prophecy. His wife was even known as the Prophetess. These first 39 chapters are believed to be the actual recorded sayings of the ancient prophet Isaiah. Up till chapter 12 is believed to be the early years of the prophet. These are the warnings to the people of Israel that they are living the wrong way according to words of Moses. This is all told in the book of Kings, too, as this would have been during the reign of first King Uzziah and then King Jotham, roughly 750 B.C.E. Uzziah died near the start of Isaiah’s preaching.
     Chapters 10-11 warn of the impending doom at the hands of Assyrians. Isaiah warns that Yahweh will use the Assyrians as his instrument of punishment against the Israelites just as he used the Israelites against the Canaanites after warning those heathens for hundreds of years, as well. However, just as Yahweh warned the Israelites all those generations ago, so too does Isaiah issue a warning to Assyria. He tells them in chapter 10 that they will be judged for their transgressions, as well. Just because they are the instrument of God’s wrath does not mean they get to escape that wrath.
     In Chapter 11 we get the prophecy concerning the next great leader of Israel. For Isaiah, this prophecy was for a coming king that would lead after Assyria had laid waste to its people. This would be a leader that would call back the people that had been scattered by the conquest of Assyria and restore the kingship of the divided nations back into the one nation of Israel under one King. This king would be a descendent of the last great king, David. Unfortunately, Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom and whoever escaped fled to southern Judah.
     Since this king never came, as all kings up until the fall of Judah fell short of this expectation, the prophecy of Isaiah was still used in the days of Roman occupied Israel. These would have been the prophecies that were talked about in the days of Jesus and John the Baptist. The fact that the Great Scroll of Isaiah was the most complete scroll of 220 shows its significance and respect in the ancient Jewish mind. The people of that time, just as today, could use these passages as prophecy for their political situations in that time period. The Essense especially were huge fans of this scroll and had many parallel prophecies of their own using passages from The Great Isaiah Scroll.

Time to Shake Things Up

Isaiah 1-5

    This book begins the collection of scrolls of the Major Prophets. The events of the book of Isaiah take place during the periods mentioned in II Kings and II Chronicles. Isaiah is a prophet that preaches in Judah, the southern Kingdom, during the reigns of Kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah; 740-690 B.C.E. During this time period Assyria was the dominant civilization, with Babylon making rapid progress as well. It was also within this time period that the Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Assyrians; around 729 B.C.E. The origin of this book of the Tanakh is interesting and I will be able to get into it as we get deeper into the story of Isaiah. For now, though, lets soak up the atmosphere of the time and place of ancient Judah. We don’t learn anything about the prophet until Chapter Six, but the story opens right up with a harsh critique of the people of Judah in the year following the reign of King Uzziah, who ruled Judah from around 791-739 B.C.E.
     Under King Uzziah the nation of Judah was rich and powerful. Since Uzziah was a boy of sixteen when he became king (II Kings 15:2) his reign lasted fifty-two years. He was one of the most prosperous kings since King Solomon. He also did what was right in the eyes of the Lord, according to scripture. The events in II Kings and II Chronicles indicate an event late in his life where Uzziah’s pride got the best of him and he sinned against God (II Chronicles 26:19-21). He was struck with leprosy and died (2 Kings 15:5, 27; 2 Chronicles 26:3) leaving the kingdom to his son Jotham (II Kings 15:5) in roughly 739 B.C.E.
     It is under the rule of King Jotham that the Book of Isaiah opens upon. Jotham is a good king. He rebuilds many towns and fortresses as well as the walls of the Temple in Jerusalem. Over his sixteen year reign as king he does well to stay within God’s favor. Unfortunately, the people grow lazy and proud with his success and his piety does not rub off on them. That’s where Isaiah comes in.
     The first five chapters are an admonition to the people of Judah warning them of their proud ways and teaching that the descendants of Abraham and Jacob have a unique relationship with the God of gods, but they are failing to live up to their end of the covenant. Isaiah warns the people that their refusal to honor the Lord by taking care of the less fortunate people (widows, orphans, the poor, etc), as well as their love of things other than Yahweh, would cause them to lose the favor of Yahweh. They had entered into an agreement with the Creator and were not living up to their end of the bargain. Isaiah then explains exactly what the consequences for their behavior will be.
     Finally, in chapter five Isaiah explains that because Israel has failed, generation after generation, to fulfill its covenant with Yahweh they will be uprooted and scattered to the four winds. This does not mean that God’s plan of bringing the nations of the world back into his grace, explained to Abraham in the book of Genesis, has failed and ends here with the Jews. It just means that the next phase is about to begin.

The Book That Makes You Blush

Song of Solomon 1-8
    

    The Song of Songs, as it is also known, is the last piece of work of the section of the Tanakh known as the Ketuvim (Writings). It is a story about a man and a woman who are in love and going through the different stages of romance. It starts of with them romancing each other and ends with the final act of love. It is a very odd piece of scripture to be included among the other writings. In fact, through the whole short work of Song of Songs there is only one mention of God. Solomon is never mentioned as the protagonist in the story, in fact Solomon is referenced by the man in the story as the King, which leads one to believe that this main character is someone other than King Solomon. Some people think the song was written for Solomon rather than by him.
     According to the Talmud, the Jewish book of tradition compiled by the Jews after the Roman destruction of the Temple in 70 A.D., King Solomon is the author of the Song of Songs and he wrote this piece after first writing the Book of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. However, according to modern scholars the authorship of this book cannot be specified. Scholars can not even agree on an estimated date of authorship. The estimates of these scholars put the origin of this book between 950 B.C.E. to 200 B.C.E. There are some schools of thought that state the original author existed in the 900s B.C.E. and wrote in the language style of that day. Other scholars state that some of the language used in the original texts is actually Persian, which would put the date of composition sometime during or after the exile in 500 B.C.E.
    The love story contained within the Song of Songs can be a little sexy compared to the rest of the Tanakh. It really is a mystery as to why it was included in the Jewish Holy scriptures. The use of the book has been, traditionally, as a metaphor for God’s love for his chosen people. Later, it was included in the Christian Canon and used as a metaphor for God’s love for all of his children. Early church history has some of the original leaders interpreting it for their followers and using it as an allegory for Christ’s relationship with Israel and the Gentiles. Some interpretations have lended it to the idea that this is a metaphor for the soul in relation to Christ.
      Despite the mystery and uncertainty over the history this is a very beautiful piece of poetry and I bet it's even better when read in its original language.

Life? Don't Talk To ME About Life

Ecclesiastes 1-12

     Before we delve into this book of the Book I’d just like to say that this is my favorite one in the Tanakh. I admit that there are a lot more compelling stories, characters and theology throughout the Old Testament, but this book is my absolute favorite from start to finish. It is attributed to my favorite character in the Hebrew Scriptures, Solomon. When I first read this book ten years ago I felt like it was drawn right from my own personal worldview. I completely agreed, and still do somewhat, with Solomon’s perspective. There is a sort of depressing view that one could take when reading this book, but I love reading it. It is a very freeing philosophy that Solomon presents because he encourages the reader to indulge in the pleasures that life has to offer, but at the same time he cautions the reader against becoming a fool because of it. This is the true Wisdom that Solomon is sharing. That’s just my opinion, though. Let’s get into the history of this book.
     The title, Ecclesiastes, comes from the Latin version of the Greek word (Ἐκκλησιαστής, Ekklesiastes) for the Hebrew title קֹהֶלֶת which sounds like Koheleth. Koheleth literally translates to ‘Gatherer’, but is traditionally translated as ‘Teacher’. Koheleth is written in First Person and the author claims to be the son of David and the king in Jerusalem. Though Solomon is the author by tradition, the actual author is anonymous.
      In fact, many scholars agree that the book was written between 400 and 100 B.C. and so could not possibly have been written by the actual first son of David because that guy is supposed to have lived in the tenth century B.C. The main argument against Solomonic authorship is the fact that this book contains words that do not appear in any other ancient texts until hundreds of years after the time of King Solomon.
      However, this argument can be challenged by the fact that there are a limited number of texts from the ancient Near East so there can be no definitive way to verify when a certain word was in use or not. Another challenge to the 400-100 B.C. authorship lies in the Koheleth borrowing phrases from even older works such as the Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, 9:7-10 being the most used example. Add to that the lack of any reference to any later works of wisdom such as the classic Greek texts from the fifth century to the first B.C. This could support the notion that Solomon was the actual author because he was a king that would have had access to great works of other foreign nations’ history on account of his many wives from those nations.
     This book may trouble certain people. It can come across as very cynical and depressing. It may be especially troubling for Christians because Koheleth talks a lot about the finality of death. There is no talk of a happy afterlife or God rewarding you for your good works. There is no concept of salvation because that is not what the author was about. In fact, I'm not even sure there was a concept of salvation in those old days.
     Yet, this book was included for a reason. When it came time to decide what made it into the Hebrew Scriptures this was a known piece of work and deemed worthy of inclusion. There is much wisdom in these pages if you can see past the grim portrayal of the Real World.

Job and Friends

Job 3-42

   The poem of the trials of Job is a fascinating read. I really wish I could read and understand the original Hebrew because the language and flow of the poem is probably lost in the translation. It took some real focusing when I first started into the book. I kept getting lost in the language and the characters. I’m thankful for all the footnotes and extra information that is included in my Bible. I don’t think I fully appreciated the advice from Job’s buddies the last time through. These wise old men from the early days of civilization all provide some great insight and observation of the nature of God. However, even though they may speak some truth they also are condemning their poor friend for wrongs and trespasses that he did not necessarily commit. The lesson I gained from their statements was that even though they were wise in understanding the nature of God based on the information they had at the time it is arrogant to assume you can possibly know everything about God.
   The poem runs in a set of three cycles. Each cycle starts with Job and is an interaction with each of his friends in the same order. At least up until chapter 31. After that some other character pipes up that was not mentioned in the previous chapters. He claims to be the ‘youngest’ of the old men, but he kind of just shows up out of nowhere to reprimand everyone.
      Satan: The Accuser, the one that accuses man of breaking the Laws of God and reports back to the Creator. Being the one that focuses on the negative aspect of humanity over thousands of years would probably skew the perspective of an individual. This story sort of presents a prologue for the story of the Enemy, as he is referred to in the New Testament. You see the beginning of the rebellious nature of this angel as his accusations switch from humanity to a challenge of God’s omnipotence.
     Job: The righteous sufferer. The poem revolves around his perspective that he is an innocent man suffering for no good reason. Time and time again he brings up the fact that he has led an honest life and been a decent human being to all those he has come in contact with. He has always been loyal to his God and given him praise for all the blessings he has received. Even when he is at his wits end and covered in sores he does not accuse God of doing wrong. He simply wants an answer as to what he has done to offend God. I was really drawn to the passage Job 13:26 where Job hints at the fact that he knows he has done something wrong or some things wrong and it may have happened in his early days. We are all idiots in our late teens and early twenties, no matter how good we want to be. Everyone makes mistakes. Yet, to Job the punishment does not match the crime. He simply wants an explanation.
     When God shows up at the end and gives the Ultimate Beratement (my favorite part, btw) the response to Job is righteous indignation and almost a mocking tone when God asks if Job had ever caused the sun to rise or the oceans’ tides to change. God never tells Job about the stakes at play with Satan’s challenge. God makes it very clear that there is no need for the approval from the creation to rule as the Creator sees fit. However, God does offer praise to Job in the fact that Job represented the Creator the most accurately compared to the other guys.
     Eliphaz: The name of Job’s first friend is an interesting one. Eliphaz is called a Temanite in the text. Teman is a major city in the ancient land of Edom. In the book of Genesis we find the name Eliphaz again, as the eldest son of Esau, nephew to Jacob (Israel), and the father of the Edomites. The name is believed to have been chosen because the perspective of Eliphaz’s argument to Job is based in Edomite philosophy. That philosophy being grounded in the principle that the righteous people of the world do not suffer, possibly even conquering death. Only the wicked suffer and in equal measure to their sin. He believes that Job is either lying to his friends or to himself about the sins that have warranted this punishment.
    However, when God shows up he is shown the error in his logic. The same God is also the healer in life as well as the one who punishes. Eliphaz believed that these two things were based only on whether a person does good or does bad. Very black and white. God convicts Eliphaz of having a false understanding of Divine Dispensation. Job understands the fact that, from a human perspective, things work much more randomly.
    Bildad: Another fun name to dissect. Bildad is referred to as a Shuhite from the lands near ancient Chaldea (Babylon) and Arabia. These people are supposedly descendants of Shuah, the son of the Patriarch Abraham and his second wife Keturah. Bildad has a slightly softer approach and tries to offer support for Job. Yet, he always ends up sounding like Eliphaz only a little more so. In fact there is almost an hysterical element as he ramps up his argument and accuses Job of speaking wickedness and impiety towards the Creator of All Things. Bildad even goes so far as to say that Job’s children deserved to die for whatever sins they committed.
     Zophar: Probably the quietest of the three he is by no means the least harsh. He is referred to as a Naamathite, but the land of Naaman is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible and I can’t find a lot of information about it. One thing that was interesting is that the name Zophar is a Gentile name. Gentiles were non-hebrew. He kind of sounds like he might be the oldest and he kind of rambles on and on about the consequences of sin and how Job is getting what he deserves. Zophar is pretty blunt and really rips into Job accusing him of being a really wicked person.
    Elihu: Where did this guy come from?!? According to the text he is descended from Nahor which can be traced back to the descendants of Shem, son of Noah. He definitely has a softer and kinder approach towards Job than the other three, but that doesn’t stop him from cutting the poor guy down. Elihu argues that the righteous and the wicked suffer and prosper equally. However, it is always at God’s discretion as to why these things happen. A wicked person may prosper by the standards of the world, but eventually God’s justice will be meted out. He claims that the righteous may suffer in the present to avoid an even greater sin from arising in the future. Sometimes suffering is used to make the person stronger or even a warning sign of future dangers. After Elihu speaks he is again gone from the story and God shows up for his big monologue. Interestingly enough Elihu is the only not chastised by God, like the other three friends, for misrepresenting the nature of God. Job is also given praise, after a heavy lecture, as being the only one that represented the nature of God correctly. Not sure what happened to Elihu. Some think he may have been inserted later on in the construction of the Old Testament as a counter argument to the other three friends similar philosophies.

God and His Man

Job 1-2

   This book has been the toughest one for me to get through, so far. Not just reading it, but trying to organize the thoughts into a way that fit the structure of what I’m trying to accomplish with the Journey Through the Book. I think what has been so difficult with this book is that up until now its been very easy to deal with the content of each book in their historical context, but this writing of the Ketuvim is so steeped in theological ideas and philosophical arguments that it’s difficult to avoid getting sucked into the debate between Job and his friends in the process.
     Before even getting too deep into the content of the book I was struck by how hard it was for me to actually read and comprehend the message in the text after chapter 3. I think it was because it is actually an old Hebrew poem from chapters 3-42:7 that is translated into English I tried many different translations until I settled on the NIV and just took it slow.
   The Talmud states the book of Job was written by Moses even though the text doesn't really give any indication of who the author is. Yet, there are also other statements in the Talmud that hint that Job may have been a story from the days of the Patriarchs considering the importance of Job’s wealth being based off land and livestock and the fact that it took place in the land of Edom. In fact, the Talmud contains many differing opinions of the origin of this story including the possibility that Job ‘never existed and was never created; it is a parable’.
   The poem itself could be based on a story that is older than the days of Egypt. Stories are fascinating things. The human brain is actually designed to learn through storytelling. The activity in the brain that occurs during the storytelling experience is astronomically more intense than what happens when the brain takes in simple statements of information. When the brain is engaged in a story the activity is equal to that of actually participating in the events. The concept of the Righteous Sufferer is an archetype that goes back to the first written recordings of human history and is an idea that we struggle with into this age.
    Why do bad things happen to good people? Why do the schemes of evil hearts seem to succeed while the innocent are trampled under their feet? I think this question burns in the hearts of people all across the world these days.
     In the old days these questions were also asked. The Sumerian people had a story that they wrote down in the Akkadian language. A language that predates the Ancient Assyrian and Egyptian languages by a couple thousand years in written form and in spoken form by tens of thousands of years. The Sumerians believed in many gods, some good and some evil, but they too had morals and concepts of right and wrong within their cultural frame. They had a story called A Man and His God that concerned the unjust suffering of a good and honest man. The Babylonians even had a version of the story they called the Poem of the Righteous sufferer with the same theme befalling a man named Shubshi-meshre-Shakkan. There is even an old Palestinian folk tradition that says that when Job was finally healed of his afflictions it was at a ‘fountain of youth’ type spring located in the town of Al-Joura. There is a four day festival every year where people from all faiths come to bathe in this spring.
     The Hebrew version of this story replaces the pantheon of gods with the monotheistic name of YHWH. This book mentions the name Satan, but the character is a little different than how our culture recognizes him. In this story the ‘sons of god’ (angels) present themselves before God and among them is one named Satan. The name in Hebrew, Ha-Satan, translates to the Adversary or the Accuser. It would seem he is a member of this Divine Council of Angels and his role seems to be one that is sent to tempt mankind and report back to YHWH regarding all who break his decrees. Ha-Satan states that he has come from roaming the earth and offers a challenge to YHWH when asked about the Lord’s favored. He states that Job only praises YHWH because YHWH has showed him favor. If he was afflicted with suffering he would curse the name of the Lord. YHWH accepts the challenge. Already in the first two chapters we see the reason for Job’s affliction. Job may not understand and his friends can not fathom the underlying reasons for the events they are speculating about, but we can. Through Job’s suffering and continued allegiance to YHWH the Accuser is rebuked and his power over the oppressed will be lifted in the fullness of the story arch. If Job does forsake YHWH not only is he lost, ‘cause Ha-Satan sure isn't gonna take care of him, he will become a beacon of darkness and hopelessness for all those who come after him and suffer in this broken world. There is a reason for Job’s suffering and in the end as with most of the Books in the Bible it is ultimately for the benefit of humanity and the Glory of YHWH in the long run that suffering is allowed to happen in the short term. However, in the end evil is defeated and the righteous are restored. Spoiler!

Talmud: Second in importance to the Torah in Judaism. It is a mixture of the first written collection of Jewish Oral Law as well as theology and history of the Hebrew people.

Patriarchs: Abraham, Issac, and Jacob.

Esther and the Yehudim

      Our next stop on our Journey takes us to the Book of Esther. A gripping story of the rise of an orphaned Israelite to become the Queen of the Persian Empire and in so doing saves her people from imminent genocide. This book is the third in the Ketuvim (Writings) portion of the Tanakh and besides the Song of Songs it is the only book in the Bible that does not mention God.

      This has been a rather difficult book to nail down as actual history. Certain elements of it are verifiable, such as certain persons of power in the Persian empire as well as various locations and customs. One biblical scholar, Michael Coogan, even claims that the original intent of the Book of Esther by its author was for it to be a historical short story. This was something that was very popular during the Persian and Hellenistic periods, according to Coogan. What is the Hellenistic Period, you ask? Well, that is another blog.
      The compilation of the Bible in the modern form we know was a very interesting process and in researching the origin of the Book of Esther I can see why there is so much confusion surrounding this book. Some claim it as history and others claim it to be historical fiction. According to Jewish tradition most of the Tanakh (Old Testament) was completed and compiled by 450 BCE, however it is believed by many scholars that there were a few additions and edits over the centuries and the final Hebrew version was not finalized until between 200 BCE and 200 CE. That is still a pretty big window of 400 years.
     The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible aka the Christian Old Testament. There are many wonderful, fantastical tales surrounding its origin in the Greek Empire during the 3rd century BCE. What can be gleaned from them is this. In the 300s BCE the king of Egypt, Ptolemy II, had the Torah translated into the early form of Greek spoken in his region by the Alexandrian Jews. He did this for the purpose of having a copy of their holy book in the Library of Alexandria. Then over the centuries many more Hebrew works were translated into Greek. It is not known when or what was transcribed and its believed that some books could have been translated more than once and revised and combined, possibly even reinterpreted or paraphrased, thus leading to many errors.
     I gave all that background to help you understand that, when it comes to Esther, the Hebrew version of the story and the Greek version of the story cannot be reconciled. The Hebrew names for the royalty mentioned put the date of the book centuries off from the Greek translated names of royalty. This causes the actual events and story line to be clouded in a shadow of mystery as to its legitimacy as actual Hebrew history.
     Regardless of its origin or its authenticity of the details the Book of Esther had to have come by the time the Hebrew word Yehudim was a popular word with a meaning that was understood by many cultures. The book of Esther is the first book so far to use that word. Yehudim, or ‘Jews’, was a term for the people of Hebrew descent that had been scattered to the four winds and lived among many cultures and were constantly a target for hatred.
      Yehudim is derived from the Hebrew word Yehudi which means ‘From the Tribe of Judah’. If you remember the stories before Esther when the kingdom split eleven tribes went north and created Israel while the southern kingdom remained Judah. Israel was destroyed and though Judah was taken away to captivity by Babylon, they survived.

Rebuilding Zion

Ezra-Nehemiah
Nehemiah 1-13

     The second part of the two part sequel of Chronicles deals with the final historical record of the Old Testament. The books of Ezra-Nehemiah are intended to be read together as there is much mention of Ezra in the book of Nehemiah and the stories overlap at points. In fact both book are based off source material known as the Ezra Memoir and the Nehemiah Memoir as well as supposed Persian documents. There are arguments that these source material may have been heavily edited over years before being added to the Jewish Tanakh.
      The book of Nehemiah tells the story of the rise of the final governor of Judah in Old Testament history. Its the story of the returning Israelite exiles' final rebuilding process of the ancient city of Jerusalem, or Zion, and the reinstitution of monotheistic worship of their god Yahweh. Its the final reminder to the generations to come that they have been given a second chance to live up to their role as the chosen people of Yahweh. It is this story that would have been recent history to the jews living under Roman rule in the time of Jesus.
     The events that take place in these books could have been edited over the centuries before they became Jewish Canon by the 2nd or 1st Century B.C.E. However, there are some fun little historical truths sprinkled within the book. The dates that are stated at the beginning of Nehemiah 1:1, “During the month of Chislev in the 20th year, when I was in the fortress city of Susa”, which by our calendar would be November-December 445 B.C.E. This would fit with the historical backdrop that Nehemiah sets; Susa being one of the three capitals of ancient Persia. In chapter two Nehemiah also names the well known Persian king of the time, Artaxerxes, as well as a governor of Samaria named in the Elephantine Papyri as being the governor of Samaria in that time period. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephantine_papyri).
      It is true that the Jews were allowed to return from Babylon, but the only decree known to history (as far as I have found) is the one included in Ezra-Nehemiah. These passages were written in Aramaic which was the language of the Persian court and it is a known fact that Persia allowed exiles to return to their country as long as they pledged allegiance to the Empire. It is Ezra-Nehemiah’s position, however, that Cyrus became so enamored with the idea of Yahweh that he gave special care to the Israelites. This has not been completely verified outside of Jewish Scripture.

One Book or Two?

Ezra-Nehemiah
Ezra 1-10

      We are now closing in on the historical narrative of the Israeli people. Long ago the books of Ezra and Nehemiah were considered to be one piece, Ezra-Nehemiah. The earliest copy of these texts date back to the 400s B.C.E. and are contained in one book. In the 300s A.D. the Christians split them into two books. It wasn't until the middle ages that the Jews also separated the works in their own canon. These two short books provide a final point for the historical narrative of the nation of Israel.
      The rest of the Old Testament takes us back to various points and places within the story arc of Genesis - Nehemiah. We will revisit old kings and prophets that we barely touched on in Kings and Chronicles, the story of Job is said to have taken place during the time between Genesis and Exodus, we'll take a look at life for the refugees in Babylonian captivity, and there is great poetry and words of wisdom attributed to the first great kings; David and Solomon.
    But lets not get ahead of ourselves......
    First we must finish the final chapter in the history of the Jews. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah tell the story of the fall of Babylon and the inspiration of Yahweh upon the gentile nations to shape the story of the role of the Jews in Yahweh's grand plan. These books are believed to have existed in their early forms in at least 400 B.C.E. since they deal with verified historical events of the rise of the unassuming Persian nation into the next great Empire. The traditional author is Ezra the scribe who served under the Govornor of Judah, Nehemiah, in the early years of the exiles return and rebuilding of Zion. Zion was the revered name of Jerusalem as Yahweh's throne on Earth.
      The events of Persia’s rise and Babylon’s fall occurred during the mid 5th century B.C.E. and was well documented. Cyrus II of Persia, AKA Cyrus the Great or Cyrus the Elder, was known by the nations he conquered as taking a different approach to conquest. Until this time when a nation rose to power they did so at the expense of the smaller cultures it dominated over. Often killing the inhabitants of places, the more fortunate ones were scattered to the four winds as refugees, and moving their own people in to interbreed and rub out the older, conquered, culture. Cyrus II took an approach that would later be a model for the great empires for the next couple thousand years. Whenever he conquered a nation he respected the people, their customs and their gods. He allowed them to keep their local rulers in most cases as long as they paid tribute and provided warriors for future campaigns.In the case of the new Babylonian empire of the Chaldeans when Cyrus overtook the land he allowed all the slaves to return to their homelands. According to ancient records of the Jews and Babylonians Cyrus had no known religion of his own, but held a respect for all the deities of the conquered lands. Giving respect to the Babylonians gods of Marduk and Bel as well as the Hebrew monotheism of Yahweh.

       No one is really sure who the author of these two books are. There are many competing theories out there, but its interesting to see how the dialogue changes from third person to first person early on in the book Ezra. The book of Ezra also ends rather suddenly with the plan to kick out all of Israel’s foreign wives and then it goes right into Nehemiah. One popular theory for this is that Ezra 1-6 and Ezra 9-10 were actually separate documents of the same story that were spliced together by the author of Ezra 7-8 in the very earliest compositions of the text and then underwent layering and editing over the next couple hundred years between 550 B.C.E. and at least 333 B.C.E.

       The Jewish Roman historian Josephus sets this date as being the latest date of final composition since the list of high priests in Nehemiah 12:22 ends with the high priest Jaddua, who shares the name with the high priest during the conquering of Persia by Alexander the Great in 333 B.C.E. This identification is not certain, but is used to set a latest possible composition date. By the end of the 1st century B.C.E. it was pretty much the book we have now in our own modern Bibles. 

A Forward Looking Glance Back

II Chronicles 1-36

      The book of Chronicles, or Dibere Ha-Yamim (The Words of the Days), is a very interesting addition to the Old Testament. The text does not indicate an author, but according to Rabbinical tradition the author of Chronicles was the scribe Ezra who is also believed to be the author of the books Ezra/Nehemiah. The fact that the Book of Ezra begins with the final line of Chronicles also suggests that the author of Ezra/Nehemiah had access to the book of Chronicles. Based off the events that are recorded at the end of II Chronicles we know that the book was written as early as 538 B.C. because that is when Cyrus took over Babylon and sent the exiles back to Judah to rebuild the Temple of Solomon.
      The early years of return were not easy ones for the returning exiles. The first seventy-five years were the hardest. The area of land they were able to control was about a fifteen mile radius around the ruined city of Jerusalem. The walls of the city were in ruins leaving little protection from raiding Bedouins or bandits. The surrounding ‘neighbors’ did not view them kindly, seeing them as interlopers and rivals politically and economically. The harvests were poor or nonexistent and there were many famines in the land in those days. To top it all off there were no resources to rebuild the Temple. The people’s morale would have been very low.
      The text indicates that the author, or Chronicler, was most likely a returning exile of the priestly or Levitical tradition. The work is often considered a whitewashing of Jewish history since there is no mention of the serious moral failings of both David and Solomon. Also, there is very little mention of the northern Kingdom of Israel and even then its not a slanderous or negative view of the heathen rebellious kingdom. The Chronicler would have been speaking to the returning exiles from Babylon who would have been a mixture of the descendants from both Israel and Judah.
      The point of Chronicles is not to give a straight political history of the Monarchy because the author assumes that his audience is already familiar with the events in the books of Kings and other political records and histories that were preserved in their culture. The Chronicler is taking a teleological approach to Hebrew history in the sense that he is telling the story from the perspective that there is a Divine Plan in action and when humanity lives in harmony with that Plan they prosper, but if they live in opposition to the Plan the natural outcome is destruction.
       There are many differences between events in the books of Chronicles and the same historical events as told in Samuel-Kings. It is believed that the book of Kings relied on political records kept from both kingdoms, while the book of Chronicles sites sources such as prophets and seers along with official government genealogies. Another contribution to the differences is the different language styles that were used for each book. Kings would have been a more traditional Hebrew language pattern whereas the Chronicler used a lesser known Palestinian version of Hebrew that came from the Samaritans.
      In the end I think that the differences between Kings and Chronicles aren’t a cause for pointing out contradiction and inconsistency in the Bible. One could definitely make that argument by giving a quick superficial glance to the text. However, I think its important to remember that the Old Testament has been around for a few thousand years and was compiled very specifically to include both the books of Kings and Chronicles despite these inconsistencies, or maybe even because of them. Each book serves as a different theological perspective of Jewish history. Kings seems to be more of a warning by focusing on the failings and division of the Hebrew people whereas Chronicles is a very positive and future based perspective that is meant to unite and inspire the descendants of the Children of Abraham.

King David, We Hardly Knew Ye

Chronicles 9-29

     So, there is not much to add to the historical information around Chronicles that we didn't get from the Book of Kings because now all we have done is gone back to the beginning of the Monarchy. What we can take note of, however, is the subtle differences between the histories of the Books of Kings compared to the Books of Chronicles. The Book of Kings is believed to have been fleshed out during the reforms of Josiah and maybe the generations after, during the Babylonian occupation. The fall of Judah would have been fresh in the minds of the editors and authors of the writings. The Book of Chronicles is believed to have been constructed after the return of the exiles from Babylon and so the history of David and the messianic promises of the prophets would have been in the minds of those authors and editors.
      The first major difference between the two texts are the events of King David. He is definitely portrayed in a much more positive light. There is no mention of his adultery or some of the other questionable decisions. I don’t remember the Book of Kings mentioning the special warriors known as the Three and the Thirty, but that was fun. It reminded me of a comic book series or something. Also, there is no mention of David's childhood or the situation with Goliath. These chapters are mostly the military victories and accomplishments of the first King of united Israel. This book is also more heavy on the religious side than the political. There is much more detail in these writings about how David prepares for the building of the Temple and the inner workings of the priesthood.

      The final chapters of this first book of Chronicles are all about the duties and positions within the Temple. These would have been the major references for the returning exiles who began the process of rebuilding Solomon’s Temple. The children of Abraham would never reach the height of power or prosperity that they enjoyed during the period of Kings and Chronicles, but the stories would be dutifully recorded and retold in hopes of one day achieving greatness in the name of Yahweh.

Back to the Start

I Chronicles 1-8

        The first eight chapters are a quick recap of the genealogies of the Israelites from Adam down to the first King of Israel, Saul. The book of Chronicles lists many sources available to the Jews of that day including public records, registers and genealogical lists that were kept by the Israelites. The Deuteronomical History (Genesis- Kings) is thought to be another source for this book. Genealogical records were very important as they were the basis for land ownership of the various tribes and the families within those tribes.
        Wow, we have come a long way. So far we have finished the first collection of writings known as the Torah (instruction) which is Genesis - Deuteronomy. The second collection of works within the Tanakh is known as the Nevi’im (Prophets) and is broken into two subgroups. First we have the Nevi’im Rishonim (Former Prophets) which is what we just finished; the books of Joshua-Kings, also referred to by some as the Deuteronomical History. The second part of the Nevi’im is known as the Nevi’im Aharonim (Latter Prophets) and are the collection of writings attributed to the prophets Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekial, and the Twelve Minor Prophets. They have a fascinating history of their own, but all in due time. Interestingly enough the books of the Latter Prophets are actually thought to be older than the narratives of the Former Prophets.
       Stuck in between the works of the Nevi’im Rishonim and Nevi’im Aharonim is the third collection of writings within the Tanakh known as the Ketuvim (writings). The Ketuvim is made up of the three Poetic Books (Sifrei Emet) Psalms, Proverbs, and Job; The Five Scrolls (Hamesh Megillot) of the books of Ruth, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes (my favorite), and Esther; the Other Books (of which there is no formal grouping or name) which are the books of Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah (two prophets in one book, but later split into two books by the Christians), and finally the book we are starting; Chronicles. Another ridiculously large book of the ancient world that had to be split into two scrolls, I and II Chronicles.
       In Hebrew this book is called Divrei Hayyamim (The Matters [of] the Days) and at one time it was believed that these writings were what the author of Samuel and Kings based their work off of. Some even believed the author to be one of the authors of portions of the book Ezra-Nehemiah. However, most modern scholars have dismissed this theory. The earliest possible date for this book would be around 539 BCE because the book mentions the actions of Cyrus the Great, the Persian king who conquered Babylon and allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple. It is believed that the works of the prophets (former and latter) were completed after the Babylonian exile and inducted into the Jewish canon around the 2nd century B.C.E. Yet, the Ketuvim as a whole did not become an accepted book of the Jewish Tanakh till the 2nd century A.D. There is evidence, though, that many Israelites were adding some of the other works to their already canonized books of the prophets as early as 132 B.C.E. even though there was no official title for the collection.
        I will try to move us through I and II Chronicles as quickly as possible since most of it is just a retelling of the books of Kings. I would like to point out that there is a different tone to this book than that of the books of Kings. Chronicles was probably written after the return of the exiles from Babylon and the author was a little more favorable towards the previous monarchies than that of the author/s of Kings who were most likely recent exiles into Babylon and still bitter about the rulers that were in power at the time.

Final Kings and the Genesis of the Tanakh

II Kings 21-25

       According to the book of Kings after Hezekiah died his son, Manasseh age 15 at his coronation, and grandson, Amon 22 at the age of coronation, backslid into the idolatrous patterns of the previous kings. According to Assyrian records Manasseh was actually a respected ruler of Judah because he was such a loyal vassal of Assyria in the eyes of king Sennacherib, who had an awful time with Hezekiah. This relationship carried over to Sennacherib’s son who became the Assyrian King after his father died. Despite the criticism in the text of Kings regarding Manasseh’s religious policy archeological evidence shows that there was relative peace and prosperity during the reign of Manasseh. In fact he is credited with reviving the Judean economy. Because he had to gain the trust of the Assyrians as well as some of the more affluent countrymen Manasseh relaxed some of the reforms of his father, Hezekiah, and allowed the high places to come back along with other pagan practices. This is not the last we will see of this King. There is nothing outside of the Biblical Account for the reign of Amon. He only ruled Judah for two years before being assassinated. Since he followed in the ways of his father he probably was not a thorn in the side of the Assyrians and therefore not worth mentioning in their records.
      Which brings us to the king that is credited with the origin of the Old Testament, Josiah. Josiah is the great grandson of the great reformer Hezekiah. He is eight years old when his father, Amon, was assassinated. From the beginning, according to the Book, he was a devoted follower of Yahweh and did what was right in His eyes just as King David had done. He even went so far as to tear down the shrines created by the first king of Israel, Jeroboam, after the split of Kingdom. In his eighteenth year as king, when he was 26, he ordered the Temple to be cleaned up and restored. He told his servants to give the priest, Hilkiah, as much money as was needed for the project. According to the Book, as well as other scrolls that have been found with the seal of Josiah stamped into it, during the renovation a very old collection of writings was discovered.
       The name used to describe these writings that were discovered are called The Book of the Torah in II Kings 22:8 which is the same title given to the writings given to Joshua by Moses in the Book of Joshua 1:8 and 8:34. It is this text that was discovered in the reign of Josiah that is the source for the Deuteronomic Reform of Josiah and later used as the source for the Deuteronomical Historian who took the history of Judah and Israel and combined it with the warnings given in the Book of the Torah by Moses.
Josiah is portrayed as an even greater king than Hezekiah and turned to Yahweh with all his heart and soul and strength, just as his ancestor David had done. Unfortunately, it is too little too late. The sins of the previous kings and the people they ruled are too numerous for Yahweh and destruction is still imminent according to the words of II Kings. During this period the ancient world is in flux. The Assyrian Empire was in decline and the Babylonians were not yet at a powerful position to be a superpower. Egypt had just thrown off Assyrian rule, but were not a powerful nation by any means. This allowed the small kingdom of Judah to flourish without any disturbances.
        But, all good things must come to an end and in the year 609 B.C. Egypt joined the Assyrians in a campaign to take over the region, including Judah. Josiah went to battle these forces and was killed. His successor, Jehoiakim, was only power for a few months, but he followed in the evil ways of the previous kings. He was imprisoned by the Pharaoh of Egypt who installed his uncle as the new King. It was this king that had the first dealings with the Babylonian invaders and his son Jehoiachin was the king of Judah when the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar invaded and ransacked Jersualem and the Temple of Yahweh. Another puppet king was put in place by the Babylonians, Zedekiah, who later rebelled against the Babylonians and brought their anger down on the Kingdom.
        The events of the destruction of Jerusalem at the hands of Nebuchadnezzar is not only recorded in the Bible, but has also been chronicled by the Babylonians themselves. Judah becomes just another city state within the Babylonian Empire. It will be a good long while that the children of Israel will be imprisoned in Babylon. However, when the Persian Empire takes over and they are allowed to return to Jerusalem one of the things they return with are the scriptures discovered during Josiah’s reign and around 520 B.C. the foundation for the first nine books of the Old Testament begins.

King David 2.0

II Kings 18-20

      Well, it has taken us roughly five months to get through the Deuteronomical History, Genesis thru Kings. It is within these final chapters of Second Kings that we catch up, so to speak, in time with the supposed author/s of the these first nine books of the Old Testament. The theory accepted by most biblical scholars says that these books were written during the period of Josiah’s reign and probably edited over the centuries after the exile in Babylon. But, lets not get ahead of ourselves.
      The setting of these final seven chapters is after the Assyrian campaign that started with Samaria and eventually led to the total annihilation of Israel. After the destruction of Israel the surviving refugees would have scattered to the four winds. Some of them would have headed south and found a new life in Judah. They would bring with them their own stories of the heroes and Kings of their histories, helping to flesh out some more of the Deuteronomical History over time.
In chapter 18 we meet King Hezekiah. He is portrayed as one of the most loyal kings to Yahweh since David or Solomon. Remember that at this time there were no Holy Scriptures. There were only stories that had passed down over the generations and a vague understanding of the god Yahweh given by visions and messages from the prophets. The prophets were the ones that would lead the people back to the Yahweh and the Law, but usually the Kings didn’t like what they had to say and their messages fell on deaf ears. King Hezekiah restored the Kingdom back to the early days of Yahweh worship, undoing generations of pagan incorporation into Jewish life and religion.
       According to this book, II Kings, when the king of Assyria (modern day Iraq) finally decided to invade Jerusalem he captured and destroyed a city close by called Lachish. After that he sent word to Hezekiah that Jerusalem’s destruction was imminent. He called out to the king mocking the god of Judah and the Temple made to worship that god. It is said that as retribution for these words against the God of gods, Yahweh sent an angel that slew 180,000 soldiers of the Assyrian King, Sennacherib. This is also where we meet a very famous prophet of this time period, Isaiah, who has a whole book dedicated to him later in the Journey.
What is so great about this story is that its not just a tale told in a very old book. This story happens to be one of the most famous accounts in Ancient History. There are a few different accounts of this ancient battle, but one of the most intricate tellings comes from the King of Assyria himself. In the mid 1800’s a discovery was made in the city of Nineveh, the capital of Ancient Assyria and now located in Northern Iraq. What was found in one of the rooms of the palace of Sennacherib was a set of large stone panels that covered the entire space of the walls in the room. It was deemed to be a waiting room for important figureheads from other lands and the story told on these stone tablets is the story that is contained in the second book of Kings.
      The Lachish relief, as it known now, is the telling of how the King and his armies marched upon the kingdom of Judah, even naming King Hezekiah, and destroyed many important towns and cities of the region. The most important being the city of Lachish which is so close to the central power of the Judean Kingdom, Jerusalem. The relief does not mention the destruction of the troops by an Angel of Yahweh, but it is not a story about the destruction of Jerusalem, either, which would have been an extremely important and strategic victory in the land. To compare it to modern times it would be like capturing Chicago or New York instead of Washington D.C. The Lachish relief also shows that Judah would have been an important player in the region at the time of the relief’s construction, roughly 701-680 B.C.

      Also discovered in ancient Israel is the underground tunnel Hezekiah built to transport water into the city without the Assyrian forces outside of town being able to stop it. This allowed them to stay within the city and survive by growing food.
      Any other references to the events surrounding Hezekiah regarding his illness and miraculous healing are lost to time and history. The warning given to Hezekiah about the future of the country of Judah comes again from the prophet Isaiah and is a foreshadowing of the things to come. According to this book Isaiah is shown a vision of the fate of the future generations of Israel and its not pretty. Some believe this is one of the later additions added after the refugees came back from Babylon and first began recording their holy scriptures.
     Because Hezekiah was so righteous and followed in the steps of David so completely, and with even less information regarding Yahweh than that former king had, the time of the destruction is extended into the days of the next generations. However, Hezekiah is introduced to the future conquerors of Judah, the Babylonians.

Israel's Decline and Fall

II Kings 1-17

    The second half of the book of Kings starts off with more or less a continuation of the rivalries between Israel and Judah as well as their surrounding neighbors. Rather than rewrite it all here I found a great site that has many informative links about the events in this book of the Bible as well as the characters within.
http://www.vtaide.com/gleanings/Kings-of-Israel/kings.html
     This will also be helpful to come back and reference in the future when we get into the books of the prophets that were written during the reigns of these kings and will give us a more in depth look at some of them.
     I want to break at this point in Kings because it deals with the end of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. We have the records here in this book of the Bible as one version of events that took place over a thousand years ago. There is indication that the events that were put in this version of the story were filtered through the lens of the Deuteronomical Historian who quotes his sources as being from various other Royal records.
      The books of Genesis through Kings were completed roughly around 500-300 B.C.E. By this time Israel had been gone for a couple hundred years, lost to Assyrians, and Judah had been conquered by the Babylonians. The events that happened before were written in different records as well as kept through oral tradition. There are a few things that make the events in the Book a little more real in regards to history.
       There is a story in chapter 3 concerning the king of Moab, Mesha, who revolts against Israel and sacrifices his son to his god and this turns the tide and he is victorious. In 1868 a stone stele was discovered that dated back to the 800s B.C.E. and was a record of King Mesha regarding his victory over the Kings of Israel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Stele. This stele confirms that the Moab King sacrificed his son to the god Chemosh and this he credits for his victory over Israel.
      Also, the story of the siege of Lachish when the Assyrians took control of the lands of the Philistines and many towns close to Judah, II Kings 18:13-14, is also recorded by the Assyrians themselves. The Taylor Prism, a recording of King Sennacherib of Assyria, gives us a slightly different version of these events but still indicates a similar fate for Judah. With their lands being eaten away by the superpower of the ancient world it was a choice between being conquered or keeping the land, but live under the authority of Assyria. Hezekiah, chose to be a vassal and keep the lands of Judah. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_and_Sennacherib_Prisms King Hezekiah is mentioned in this stele by name. This shows that he did indeed exist, although it is not as flattering a mention as the one in 2 Kings 18:5-8.
      Unfortunately, the kingdom of Israel to the north was not so lucky. King Jehu had pretty much alienated himself from the surrounding peoples by outlawing their gods and killing their prophets. Later kings did no better to make peace with the neighbors and by the mid 700s Assyria invaded Samaria and kicked out most of the people and put in their own countrymen in hopes that the two would mix. This was how the Assyrians destroyed a culture and assimilated it into itself. This is where the animosity for the Samaritans in Roman Israel originated. These events are recorded also on a stone record of King Sargon II of Assyria, http://suite101.com/article/cuneiform-writing-from-the-palace-of-sargon-ii-a181523.
       Eventually, Assyria comes in and wipes out the kingdom and refugees from the land scatter to the winds, just as the prophets warned, but some head south with warnings of the fate that could befall Judah if they don’t shape up, too.

Here’s a site with some great little pieces I found in my snooping.

http://www.bible-history.com/assyria_archaeology/archaeology_of_ancient_assyria_archaeological_discoveries.html

Pagans and Prophets

I Kings 13-22

     In the previous blog we covered the events of the splitting of the Kingdom of Israel into the North and South as seen through the lens of the Book. Keeping in mind that these events were written by scribes that lived long after the events took place, writing down people and events from their historical sources as well recording the stories of their history from the perspective of the books of Moses, significantly the book of Deuteronomy. Kings and Chronicles clearly state that the kingdom of Israel to the north is a country that begins the worship of pagan idols pretty much at its inception. While the kingdom of Judah still seats an heir of Yahweh’s chosen bloodline, David, even though his descendants never live up to his standard. This perspective gives us a clear black and white view of history and the people and events therein. However, before we get to the major players and events of these histories I want to go over the kings of the early division, but from the perspective that archaeology gives.
      There is a good amount of information that we can gather about these kingdoms and it comes from the people that they fought with in the region, such as the Assyrians and Moabits. Many proclamations inscribed in stone and other such remnants confirm a lot of details within the Book, but also offer different perspectives on certain rulers and their legacies.
     For example, in I Kings chapter 16 we meet King Omri, 880 B.C.E., who is a military leader that kills the usurper Zimri and takes the throne. He establishes his capital in Samaria* and according to the book ‘does evil in the sight of the Lord’ by worshiping worthless idols. Yet, archaeological evidence paints a slightly different picture. We see a leader that almost rivals Solomon in his dynamism and expansive mentality. According to ancient records he challenged some enemies like the Moabites and made peace with others such as the Phoenicians, who were excellent builders and tradesmen and only enriched and beautified his kingdom more. He made alliances with his enemies through the marriage of his son to the princess Jezebel and made an altar to her god, Baal, in Samaria. He later made peace with Judah when he had his daughter marry Jehoram.
    There is evidence for the tolerance of other gods shown in Israel. In those days rulers honored one another by not only paying tribute to the person, but also to their god(s). However, in the south Judah struggled with this problem of existing in a hostile region while still staying true to their God. For much of their early years Judah fought with their neighbors; Israel, Moab, Philistines, etc. Because of their lack of diplomacy Judah was ransacked from all directions. Finally they recognized the need for allies and king Jehoram married the daughter of Israel’s king Ahab, which in turn brought the pagan ways of Jezebel into the country of Judah.
    While Jezebel seems to have a verifiable place in history the same can not be said for the prophet Elijah. There is no archaeological evidence for the events between Elijah and Jezebel. However, at this time in history there were those that still honored the god of king David in the lands of Israel and these ‘prophets’, as they were known, were a constant thorn in the side of the kings who sought advice from the priests and prophets of other lands and gods. These prophets were entrenched in the political workings of the time and were not hermits that secluded themselves from civilization. While the events of this prophet can not be confirmed or denied there were definitely people similar to him and his friend Elisha. People who challenged the establishment’s embrace of idolatry and paganism and warned against the consequences of their actions.
      When the books of Kings were compiled, probably in 560 B.C.E., Elijah could have been a folk hero whose story had passed through the generations. By this time the kingdom of Israel would have fallen to the Assyrians and so the warnings of Elijah to Israel in the books of Kings could have been a warning to the people of Judah that their same mistakes led to the Babylonian exile in the mid 500s B.C.E.





*The countryside of Samaria becomes a reviled land by the time Jesus takes the scene 800 years later.

A Kingdom Divided

Kings 13-16

     Solomon is my favorite character in the Book for many reasons, but one of them is his wonderful humanity. He is the epitome of what it means to be human. He is said to be the wisest man in the history of the People of Israel. It is said that the only request Solomon had of God was to give him Wisdom and Yahweh heaped it on in bucket loads. Yet, all that wisdom became a curse in Solomon's older years as his desire for knowledge and peace led him to allow foreign wives to bring their pagan practices to the Kingdom of Yahweh. Because of this transgression Yahweh's blessing is removed from the Kingdom and after Solomon's death ten tribes of the north have split leaving Judah and Jerusalem under the control of one king and the Northerners with another. According to the Book Yahweh's covenant with David remains steadfast as there is still an heir on the throne in Judah and the Temple of Yahweh remains under the control of the House of David.

Judah and Israel

The southern kingdom of Judah is comprised of the tribe of Judah as well as the remaining Benjaminites and is the home of the Temple of Yahweh built by King Solomon and remains a place of worship no matter who is on the throne. While there were few of them, there were kings that tried to be faithful to Yahweh.
The Northern Kingdom of Israel rebelled against the god of Israel under the reign of their first king Jeroboam. The Northern Kingdom is full of usurpers and power grabs and military coups. Despite the wicked rulers of the kingdom there were prophets of Yahweh that spoke on His behalf in the Northern Kingdom. 


930-913 B.C. Rehoboam was the first king of Judah and is the one that began the split after Solomon's death. When a Hebrew rebel named Jeroboam, from the tribe of Ephraim, hears of the death of the king he leaves Egypt and heads north to win the people outside of the territory of Judah. At the same time Rehoboam receives ill advice to oppress the northerners further, and who already feel like they are treated badly, which only pushes them further onto Jeroboam's side.


930-909 B.C. Jeroboam wins the northern people to his side and they push out the monarchy of Judah to the edge of their territory. Jeroboam is now the ruler of ten tribes of the twelve tribes of Israel. Ten different tribes all full of their own internal issues and problems. Now that Judah is a separate entity Jeroboam worries that the people will travel to Jerusalem to worship at the Temple and slowly loose their affection for the Northern Monarchy. To avert this Jeroboam commits the act that leads all of his successors to their demise. He builds golden calves to be worshiped in his Kingdom so the people have a place to sacrifice at. This angers Yahweh and the prophet Ahijah delivers a condemnation upon the house of Jeroboam beginning with the death of his child Abijah.


913-910 B.C. Abijam, the son of Rehoboam, takes the throne. He goes to war with the Northern kingdom of Jeroboam, and just before battle Abijam stands on a Mt. Zemaraim and calls out to Jeroboam condemning him for his idolatry and turning away from Yahweh. When Jeroboam out maneuvers him and ambushes him Abijam calls out to Yahweh for deliverance and is given victory. He gains more power, but only reigns for three years before dying in 910 B.C.


909-908 B.C. After the death of Jeroboam, allegedly by Yahweh in human form, his son Nadab takes the throne. Nadab reigns for one year and while he was besieging a city in the territory of Dan under Philistine occupation a man Baasha from the tribe of Issachar conspired to overthrow him. Baasha murders Nadab and the entire house of Jeroboam, fulfilling the prophecy of Ahijah.


910-869 B.C. The grandson of Rehoboam takes the throne, but his grandmother Maachah is still known as Queen Mother to the people. Furthermore she is a foreigner who has introduced the worship of the goddess of her people to the people of Judah. However, Asa is faithful to Yahweh and remembers the covenant of his Fathers. He begins to enact reforms into the land to bring people back to the ways of the Law. In his 15th year as king Judah was invaded by the Cushites, but with the help of Yahweh and the faith of Asa the enemy is defeated despite overwhelming odds. Asa gathers the people of Judah and Benjamin and declares a festival in honor of Yahweh and reaffirms the covenant made with King David. He also takes away the title of Queen Mother from Maachah because of a Asherah pole she had made. He cuts it down and burns it. Despite his reform and dedication to Yahweh he is still unsuccessful at fully removing the pagan idols from the lands. Then, a few months later when confronted with war with Baasha, Asa lacks faith in Yahweh and relies on a treaty with the king of Syria to achieve victory. Because of this lack of faith Yahweh uses the prophet Hanani to warn Asa that his lack of faith has ended the peace time of his land. In 872 B.C. his feet become diseased and he names his son Jehoshaphat as successor.


908-885 B.C. After murdering king Nadab and wiping out the house of Jeroboam Baasha continued in the ways of his predecessors and encouraged the worshiping of the false idols made by Jeroboam. Because of this Yahweh sends a prophet named Jehu to tell Baasha that although Yahweh gave him a chance he had failed. He would suffer the same fate as the family of Jeroboam. In 894 B.C. Baasha enters into war with the southern king, Asa, and takes control of territory close to Jerusalem. He doesn't know that his ally the king of Syria has just switched allegiance to his enemy, Asa, and when confronted by Syrian soldiers Baasha retreats.


885-884 B.C. In fulfillment of Jehu's prophecy the son of Baasha doesn't last long. When Baasha dies his son Elah takes the throne, but it doesn't take long for another conspiracy to develop. in 884 military leader named Zimri confronts Elah while he's drunk in the home of his steward and kills him. He destroys the entire family of Baasha in fulfillment of Jehu's prophecy. However, his reign doesn't last long. When the troops of Israel hear about the murder of their king they stop what their doing, select a leader among them named Omri as the true king, and set out to take the throne from Zimri. After seven days of being king Zimri sees the troops coming for him and kills himself by setting the palace on fire and burning with it.


884-874 B.C. After these events there is confusion and mayhem in the land of Israel. Half the territory is allied with the military leader, Omri, while the other half allied with a man named Tibni. In the end the followers of Omri prevailed and in the 31st year of king Asa's rule in Judah Omri became king of the North, Israel. He established Israeli rule over the land of Samaria and took over the territory of the Moabites forcing them to pay heavy tribute that lasted for forty years. Omri continued down the same path as his predecessors worshiping idols and foreign gods until his death in 874.

Before We Continue...

    If you are as sad as I am to see the tragic end of Solomon come so quickly in the huge tome of the Old Testament do not fret. There are a few books coming up later that are attributed to him. Mostly philosophy, poetry and the classification of trees and shrubs. That Solomon was quite the hippie tree hugger after he violently took the throne in 970 B.C.
   One thing to keep in mind as we get into the history of the Monarchy of the Divided Kingdoms is that up until this point our Journey through the books of the Book have taken a basically linear path. Once we finish these books of Kings the Journey takes a different course. We will revisit a few of the kings we read about as well as whole books attributed to certain prophets mentioned during different reigns at different points in history. The stories of the prophets are interwoven into the political dealings of the monarchs. The books of Kings and Chronicles are almost an outline of things to be more fleshed out later in the books of the Major and Minor Prophets.
    Unlike the reign of Solomon the reign of these kings are a little more substantial in archaeological history. Because they had dealings with the other major empires of the time, such as the Syrians and Babylonians, there is a little more evidence to back up various events, rulers and situations. There are a few books referenced within the book of Kings that have now been lost to time and history. These are mentioned as the Annals of King Solomon and the same for Israel and Judah.
    As with the other books we have read since Deuteronomy the book of Kings is considered to be part of the DH (Deuteronomical History). The DH is believed to be the perspective that the author/s are trying to convey in their interpretation of history based off the books of Moses, the only pre-monarchical prophet besides Samuel. Again, these books (Joshua - Kings) are thought to have been collected and composed during the reign of King Josiah during the Babylonian occupation and exile. The thought was that the tragedy that was falling on Judah and the tragedy that had already become of Israel, was a direct result of the tribes of Israel turning away from their god Yahweh and worshiping the Baals and the Asherahs. The baals and asherahs mentioned are terms used to describe the various gods (baals) and goddesses (asherahs) of the many cultures of the region. This is the major theme running through the books of Kings.